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The in-depth scientific investigations that we carried out in the NW of the Moroccan Central Hercynian Massif (Western Meseta) led us to attain a thorough revision of various aspects of the geology of the Moroccan Hercynian Orogeny; that are summarized in five themes.
From Lithostratigraphic, magmatic and palaeogeographic, we have shown that the Sidi Bettache Basin (Piqué, 1979; El Hassani, 1990; Tahiri, 1990; Fadli, 1991; Zahraoui, 1991) in fact corresponds to two basins adjacent: - the Sidi Bettache Basin sens.strict [BSB ss], open during Upper Famennian, directly to the east of the coastal Mole (coastal Meseta), during an E-W extension; - the Brachwa - Maaziz Basin (BMB), open during Middle Visean, between the Sehoul Block to the north and the Zaër - Oulmès Block to the south, during an N-S extension.
The overlap of the Sehoul Block to the south is sealed by Middle Visean conglomerates (structuring is previously attributed to the Caledonian orogeny, whereas recently, It is believed to be an early Hercynian tectonic as in the eastern Meseta). Therefore, this overlap took place in the Upper Devonian, a fact which is corroborated by the opening of the BMB which established later, during the Middle Visean, not in the Upper Devonian (Lakhloufi, 2002; 2007). Then the opening of the Upper Famennian sedimentary basins, at the Western Meseta established only at the coastal Mole (Safi Basin) and directly to the east of that [Sidi Bettache Basin s.s (lakhloufi, 2007) to the North and Foum El Mejez Basin in the Rehamna, to the South (El Kamel, 1987)]. In addition, where basins are open during the Upper Famennian (Lakhloufi, 2007), the land is affected by an intense network of submeridians faults (NNW – SSE, and NW - SE). This structural organization was, therefore, favorable of these basins opening during a sub E-W extension, concomitant with the submeridian shortening which made the Sehoul Block overlap towards the south, at the Upper Devonian (Lakhloufi, 2002). Fadli (1991) was highlighted a double extension in the regions of Khatouat and Mdakra; indeed, the lack of the Middle Visean - Upper Visean, did not allow him to show that the extension north - south is post lower Visean.
The question which then arises is how to reconcile between the sub E-W shortening which structures the eastern Meseta in the Upper Devonian and the submeridian shortening which made the Sehoul Block overlap towards the south and caused the opening of the SBB s.s and Foum El Mejez and Safi basins, completely to the west of the western Meseta. For the various authors (Piqué, 1979; Hoeppfner, 1987; Bouabdelli, 1989; Tahiri, 1991), the sub E-W shortening (ENE-WSW) which structures the eastern Meseta is responsible for the opening of the pull apart sedimentary basins (Piqué, 1979) or of the transtension - transpression type (Bouabdelli, 1989), in the western Meseta. Piqué (1979) qualified the opening of the SBB as a Famenian revolution in a distensive context; this fact was adopted and ratified by all hercynian geologist researchers (moroccan hercynian) (Padget et al, 1977; Piqué, 1979; El Hassani, 1990; Izart, 1990; El Hassani, 1990; Tahiri, 1991; Fadli, 1991; Zahraoui, 1991; Lakhloufi, 2002). The normal faults, known at its northern margin, led to the formation of the Satour graben (Gouttière of Satour), limited by the Sehoul Block which overhangs on the north side and by the Rabat - Tiflet ridge (horst) (Piqué, 1979; El Hassani, 1990) to the south.
However, based on the new radiometric datas of certain tectonic lenses of granites which outcrop in the North Mesetian Shear Zone (NMSZ) (see below), Tahiri et al. (2010), opted for a radical change in the hercynian geodynamic models. So, a distensive tectonic context of SBB was suddenly transformed into an orogenic basin type, without any plausible arguments. Its northern margin would be characterized by an orogenic front type of sedimentation, at the front of the overlap of the Sehoul Block to the south, which would be structured at that time? (Tahiri et al. 2010). Of course, apart from the age of 367 Ma (U-Pb zircon) of certain granite dispersed in the NMSZ, no field data can corroborate this radical change in data and ideas. But, what is annoying in this story is that this voltface will now be imposed in the reconstruction of the Hercynian orogeny geodynamic model. Indeed, Tahiri et al. (2010) has opted for a "putsch" in previous Hercynian geodynamic models, (Padgett et al., 1977; Piqué, 1979; El Hassani, 1990 ; Tahiri (1991; Lakhloufi, 2002, 2007); outcomes which attest that the SBB of Piqué (1979) was opened in a distensive context. The normal faults, known at its northern margin, led to the formation of a gutter (graben), limited by the Sehoul Block, which overhangs on the north side and by the ridge (horst) of Rabat - Tiflet of Piqué (1979) to the south.
Moreover, Tahiri et al. (2010) did not consider it necessary to cite the Lakhloufi work (2002, 2007) among the bibliographical references of their article (like all self-respecting scientists), are used, of a bypassed way, in the development of their model which consists of the opening of the BSB of Piqué (1979) at the front of a compressive orogenic context in the north. Consequently, these authors (Tahiri et al., 2010) are called upon to integrate into their orogenic model of the late Devonian (structuring of the Sehoul Block and its overlap towards the south), the BSB opening model of Piqué (1979), as well as the model structuring the eastern Meseta by a sub E-W shortening. Except for the ages 367 Ma and 605 Ma as new data (which are those of some of the granitic lenses that outcrop within the ZCNM), the Tahiri et al. (2010) work, posed insolvent geological problems, relating to the Hercynian orogeny in Morocco, and elsewhere, consequently.
THEME 1 : LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Based on the structural implications and the relative chronology of sedimentary rocks, their constituents, geological events and phenomena, we have been able to establish a number of facts, including two that have deep structural and geodynamic implications.
The non-existence of a chaotic Famenno-Tournaisian formation
The non-existence of a chaotic formation of Famenno-Tournaisian age along the northern margin of the SBB; the chaotic aspect of these terrains is of purely tectonic origin, within an important and wide shear zone, which is the North Mesetian Shear Zone (NMSZ, see below).
Middle Visean age of conglomerates at the northern limit of the BBM
We have attributed a sure Middle - Upper Visean age to the conglomerates that outcrop along the northern border of the SBB s.s - BMB, including the famous “Siliceous Pudding” and the “Limestone Conglomerates” (Piqué, 1979; El Hassani, 1990) attributed to the Famennian . Indeed, the "limestone conglomerates" also contain the famous "ferruginous nodules" which are typical of the Tournaisian - Lower Visean Korifla Formation (deposited in the SBB s.s). This is, therefore, an indisputable argument that proves that the BMB was only open during the middle Visean, and not at the Upper Devonian as stipulated by Tahiri et al. (2010). Consequently, the presumed model of the opening of the SBB of Piqué (1979), as an orogenic basin (Tahiri et al., 2010), at the thrust front (overlap) of the Sehoul Block to the south, in the Upper Devonian, is therefore obsolete.
THEME 2 : SYNSEDIMENTARY TECTONIC DEFORMATIONS
An unprecedented Middle Visean - Upper Visean synsedimentary compressive tectonics is highlighted in the BSB s.s, which was opened during the Upper Famennian. This tectonics is expressed mainly in the form of ramps at the scale of sandstone banks and outcrop. NNW-SSE folds and reverse faults are also observed. On the other hand, this compressive tectonics is absent in the BBM which opened during the Middle Visean. Here too, these are tangible arguments in favor of inverting the stress ”field” from the Middle Visean; inverting which was favorable to the opening of the BMB between the Sehoul Block in the north and the Zaër - Oulmès Block in the south. A submeridian extension opens the BBM, while the SBB s.s has been compressed sub E-W without it being fully closed.
THEME 3: BASIC MAGMATISM
The basic magmatism is a main contribution in the study region particularly structural; several facts are then established, thus, from a cartographic point of view, we retain that:
- basic rocks are found only in the SBB s.s , which was opened during the Upper Famennian;
- their spatial distribution within the SBB s.s is not dependent on its margins, as has been admitted by Piqué (1079); they are rather associated with NNW-SSE to NW-SE faults which affect this basin;
- the mapping of a basic rocks major alignment (Akrech - Tsili Alignment) within which they can be largely grainy (in particular dolerite texture) and develop a large aureole of hydrothermal contact metamorphism expressed by cordierite and 'andalusite (Chiastolite);
- Famennian - lower Visean basic rocks appear younger from W to E; quite to the E, they are exceptionally of middle Visean age (base of Middle Visean, BMB) in a large ENE - WSW fault (Al Mchat fault), directly south of the NMSZ, on which it is connected;
- two basic rocks alignments are to be excluded from the Tournaisian magmatic landscape - lower Visean of the SBB s.s : • the NNW-SSE alignment of Permian Wadi Khellata (BANDET et al.,1990)); • the WNW-ESE alignment of the right bank of Ordovician Oued Grou.
Therefore, the geochemical nature of the basic rocks in these last two alignments should not be taken into consideration for the geodynamic models of the SBB s.s. and BBM.
THEME 4: PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The contributions relating to this theme are approached from two different scales:
+ On the scale of the SBB of Piqué (1979)
We have demonstrated that this basin was opened in two stages and therefore consists of two basins sub-independent from each other: the Sidi Bettache Basin strict sense (SBB s.s.) to the West and the Brachwa - Maâziz Basin (BMB) to the East.
The Sidi Bettache Basin “strict sense” (SBB s.s.)
The SBB s.s. opened between the Coastal Meseta to the West and the Zaër - Oulmés Block to the East, it was initiated in the Upper Famennian, until the Lower Visean. The sub E - W distension was guided by a dense network of NNW –SSE to NW-SE faults that fracture its bedrock, with a migration of the depocenter from the W to the E. In Middle Visean - Upper Visean, it was compressed sub E-W, without being completely closed. The basic magmatism activity that this basin recorded proves that these faults were deeply rooted and that the sub E-W extension was significant.
The Brachwa - Maaziz Basin (BMB)
The BBM was opened between the Sehoul Bloc in the north and the Zaër - Oulmès Bloc in the south. He was initiated in the Middle Visean, under the effect of a submeridian distension which was guided by the sub E-W faults. This distension is less important as evidenced by the absence of basic magmatism; the sub E-W faults are therefore not deeply rooted.
+ On the scale of the western Meseta
During Famennian, the basins opened up on both sides of the West Mesetian Shear Zone (WMSZ) are: - the Safi Basin, known by drilling, opened west of the ZCOM, at the Coastal Mole (Coastal Meseta); - directly east of the ZCOM, Sidi Bettache Basin s.s., opened to the north and the Foum El Mejez Basin to the south, in the Rehamna. The Azrou - Khenifra and Tiliouine basins (central Moroccan Hercynian Massif) will open until after the lower Visean.
THEME 5: TECTONICS AND STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION
From the tectonic and structural view, several facts have been highlght, both at the scale of the NW of the western Meseta (area of our investigations), and at the scale of the Mesetian and Anti-Atlas areas (domains of correlations).
Tectonic lineaments and shear zones
We have demonstrated that the SBB s.s and the BBM are bounded to the north by a major fault of crustal magnitude, trending sub E-W, with limited outcrop (about 60 km), between Rabat on the W and Tiflet on the E. This fault was omnipresent in the palaeogeographic and structural evolution of the Mesetian domain during the Paleozoic (Lakhloufi, 2002, 2007), and after (newtectonic). After the Upper Visean, during the first phase of deformation which affected all of the Mesetian and Anti-Atlas domains (see below), it behaved like a dextral shear megazone [the North Mesetian Shear Zone (NMSZ)] of verging towards the north, steeply sloping towards the south, with a 30 km minimum throw. Its limited outcrop does not allow an accurate exact estimate of its rejection. This dextral sliding is responsible for a mylonitization and a generalized lens-shaped of the Paleozoic lands at all scales like a chaotic formation of purely tectonic character, which was considered as a chaotic sedimentary formation (Piqué, 1979; El Hassani, 1990 ; Tahiri et al. 2010).
In addition, the SBB s.s is affected by a network of fractures, notably NNW-SSE and NW-SE which controlled its opening (in the Famennian) and the rise of basic magmatism, during an E-W extension (Lakhloufi, 2002 - 2007). Subsequently, they controlled its structuring during the two major deformation phases (see below). On the other hand, the sub E-W faults (in particular the ENE-WSW) which contributed to the opening of the BMB in Middle Visean are "dry" from the point of view of magmatic activity, except very locally (see above).
Tectonic phases (folding phases)
After the Visean, the SBB s.s and BMB lands recorded three deformation phases of unequal importance, spatially and temporally.
The first tectonic phase (P1 folding)
The first post-visean tectonic phase generated P1 sub E-W (ENE - WSW) folds of verging towards the NNW (except locally, see below), synschistous or not, which imposed the major structural features of the BMB lands, which are armed with powerful sandstone and sandstone-quartzitic bars. However, at the BBS s.s, where terrains are poorly armed with sandstone bars, the P1 folds were are intensely obliterated by the P2 NNW – SSE folds and NNW - SSE to NW dextral strike – slip fault (fault megabendings). This first post-visean tectonic phase comprises two episodes of deformation, showing that the shortening has changed from the direction NNW - SSE to NW - SE, following a counterclockwise rotation of the strains. At the NMSZ, the P1 verging folds towards the NNW have been dislocated dilacerated during the second episode which is responsible for the major dextral sliding of this zone.
The second phase of deformation (P2 folding)
The second folding phase generated NNW-SSE to N-S P2 folds, generally synschistous, especially at the SBB s.s., where they impose the major structural features of the land; they seriously obliterating the sub E-W structural features. This fact was also favored by the spectacular reorientations caused mainly by the mega-bend of NNW-SSE to NE-SW left – lateral strike-slip faults, during the second deformation episode of the first tectonic phase. However, at the eastern part of the BMB, the sporadic P2, well expressed locally within submeridian shear corridors of multidecametric to hectometric width. Moreover, in terms of relative chronology, the P2 folds have folded the tectonic lenses of the NMSZ.
The structural schema of Fadli (1991) shows, indisputably, that the so-called “virgations” in the Khatouat and Mdakra regions correspond to submeridian P2 folds which have folded P1 (sub E-W). On its own, this structural schema constitutes tangible proof of the existence of two orthogonal major phases of post-Visean folds. Finally, the second phase of deformation itself unfolded in two episodes; the shortening went from ENE - WSW (episode 1) to ESE-WNW (episode 2), due to a clockwise rotation of the tectonic strains.
The third phase of deformation (folds P3)
The third phase of deformation generates sub E-W P3 folds of less importance, which is expressed in a spectacular way only at the SBB s.s, in the direction of its western margin, where they are locally well developed and possibly synschistous. Nevertheless, it may be that the absence of the P3 at the BMB is due to the fact that they are coaxial with the P1 folds which impose the major structural features in these regions, where the land is armed with large sandstone bars of the Middle and the Upper Visean.
The verging of structures
The tectonic structure verging constitutes an important structural criterion, making it possible to specify the modalities of the structuring of any region and the causes of the responsible shortening. Thus, the structures verging resulting from the first phase of deformation which is towards the NNW at the BMB is due to the punching of this one by the Block of Zaër - Oulmès. The local verging of the P1 folds towards the SSE within a band a few kilometers wide, directly north of the Zaër - Oulmès Block is in favor of an under thrust towards the north, while rotating counterclockwise to the NW. This counterclockwise rotational underthrust is evidenced by the increasing of the tectonic structures southerly inclined from W to E, at the southern margin of the BMB. It is this fact which explains the verging towards the north of the NMSZ, which is strongly inclined towards the south. In addition, the verging towards the south, noted at the NMSZ is dependent on dextral newly formed N110 - N120 accidents with inverse component of verging towards the SSW. They shift the tectonic lenses of the NMSZ, there horizontal metric to hectometric displacement and they are relatively well locally developed, on the right side of the valley of the Wadi Grou. Thus, the punching down idea of the SBB by the Sehoul Block (Piqué; 1979; El Hassani, 1990) is now obsolete.
In the case of submeridian tectonic structures, generated by the second phase of deformation, the verging is either towards the East or towards the West (especially in the case of faults). This double verging is clearly marked in the Khatouat region where the P1 cartographic scale folds are vigorously deformed by the P2 folds, also on a cartographic scale. This fact is very well illustrated by the structural scheme of Fadli (1991). The most spectacular contribution of Fadli's work being this plausible argument in favor of a vigorous second phase of folding, although the author (like many others) does not want to believe in this second phase of deformation.
Correlations and extrapolations
The correlation and extrapolation with neighboring structural domains, led us to retain that:
- the Zaër - Oulmès Block records the first two folding phases (the P2 folds are ample), prior to the placement of the Zaër granite in the Westphalian terminal (303 Ma), which allows to fix the first two deformation phases compared to this absolute age;
- the coastal Mole (coastal Meseta) was only structured during the second folding phase which generated the P2 NNW-SSE folds; the P1 folds are absent.
The correlation with the Moroccan Hercynian domain (the western Meseta, the eastern Meseta and the Anti-Atlas), led us toe note:
- the first post-visean folding phase, at the BMB and SBB s.s. affected all the Mesetian and Anti-Atlas domains, with the exception of the extreme west of the Hercynian domain where the coastal Mole and the allochthonous Anti-Atlas which are structured by the meridian to submeridian folds, tributaries of the second deformation phase (P2 folds).
In addition, the fact that the first deformation phase is more intense at the eastern Meseta (basement already structured during the Breton phase, at the end of the Devonian), with synschistose folds and epizonal metamorphism, in particular at the limit with the Eastern Anti-Atlas to the south, constitutes an argument in favor of the punching of the Mesetian domain by the West African Craton (WAC) and its northern margin, the Anti-Atlas, which is metacratonized during Pan-African orogeny. The WAC would have made a counterclockwise rotation towards the NNW, like the Zaër-Oulmès Block, at the NW Meseta, which punched the BMB towards the north, also following a counterclockwise rotation during the first phase of post-visean deformation.
- the second phase of deformation affected the far west of the Mesetian domains (coastal Mole / coastal Meseta) and Anti-Atlas (Anti-Allochthonous Atlas) and a more or less wide band (from a few dozen to several tens of kilometers), directly to the E, where the P1 folds and P2 folds interfere. This band continues from the SBB s.s. to the north (NW of the western Meseta, to the E of WMSZ), to the Tata region (Western Anti-Atlas; pers. obs), via Rehamna (El Kamel, 1987), the Jbilet and the western High Atlas (Aarab, 2004). Thus, the second phase of deformation which affects, exclusively, the coastal Meseta and the Allochonous Anti-Atlas, is to be linked to the Mauritanides orogeny, further south, where the sub-meridian structural directions follow the western limit of the West African Craton (WAC).
Thus, the structural features of the Moroccan Hercynian domain (Meseta and Anti - Atlas), located between the WAC to the south and the "North American Craton" (NAC), to the west, were imposed by the directions of the boundaries of these two cratons. The sub E-W structural directions, prevalent in the Mesetian area, to the E of the Coastal Mole, are dictated by the northern limit of the CWA. The submeridian directions (especially NNW-SSE) exclusive to the coastal Mole and the allochtonous Anti-Atlas are imposed by the Western limit of the WAC and the Eastern limit of the Laurentia (NAC). Therefore, the WAC appears to have played a decisive role in the Hercynian structuring of the Moroccan Mesetian and the Anti-Atlas domains, subsequent to the Visean (apart from the coastal Mole and the Allochtonous Anti-Atlas).
During the first phase of deformation, Hercynian Morocco domain mainly slid dextrally in relation to the Hercynian orogenic domain of Western Europe, to the North, under the effect of the counterclockwise rotational thrust of the WAC towards the NW (Lakhloufi, 2002, 2007). Such a sliding is illustrated by the dextral slid of the NMSZ, steeply sloping towards the south; while at the end of the Devonian, this area provided a large overlap of the Sehoul Block to the South.
In addition, during the second phase of post-Visean structuring, the coastal strip of the Mesetian and Anti-Atlas domains was compressed E-W, like the Mauritanides in the South, under the effect of the relative E- W thrust of the WAC and its Northern margin against the NAC.
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